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History of English language

Informacje ogólne

Kod przedmiotu: PAB4SE13PA-L18
Kod Erasmus / ISCED: (brak danych) / (brak danych)
Nazwa przedmiotu: History of English language
Jednostka: Akademia Finansów i Biznesu Vistula
Grupy:
Punkty ECTS i inne: 4.00 LUB 3.00 (zmienne w czasie) Podstawowe informacje o zasadach przyporządkowania punktów ECTS:
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Język prowadzenia: angielski
Skrócony opis:

Course objectives: Examining the present from the past – the historical development of English. The course will cover such topics as: the historical background and events which influenced the language will be explained; the development of a standard language on the one hand and of new varieties on the other hand (e.g. American English); synergic effects with other area, e.g. grammar, phonetics, history of British varieties of English; basic grammatical and phonetic terminology (word classes, cases, tenses, vowels and consonants, etc.); etymological knowledge; applying rules from known examples to unknown examples (transfer).

Pełny opis:

1. The periods of English

1) Before Indo-European: unknown which language(s)

2) Indo-European = IE (- ca. 3000 B.C.): ancestor of most (but not all) European languages; common features, e.g.: ablaut; common basic vocabulary

3) Germanic = Gmc (- ca. 200 AD): strong verbs – weak verbs; strong adjectival declension – weak adjectival declension; Grimm’s Law (1st Germanic consonant shift); Verner’s Law; word-stress on the first syllable

4) West-Germanic = WGmc (ca. 200 – ca. 450 AD): precursor of OE & Old High German

5) Old English = OE (ca. 450 – ca. 1100): ca. 450 (449) conquest of Britain by Germanic tribes; historical period: Anglo-Saxon; linguistic period: Old English; full inflexional endings; largely Germanic vocabulary; literature: Beowulf

6) Middle English = ME (ca. 1100 – ca. 1500); 1066 Battle of Hastings and Norman Conquest; England trilingual (English, French, Latin); loss of many inflexional endings; many French loan-words > mixed vocabulary (Germanic – Romance vocabulary); literature: Geoffrey Chaucer (+ 1400); 1476: introduction of printing to England by William Caxton

7) Modern English

8) Early Modern English = EModE (ca. 1500 – ca. 1700): increasing standardization; Great Vowel Shift (GVS); progressive form; distinction between past and present perfect; formation of questions & negation of main verbs with to do; literature: Shakespeare, Milton, Authorized Version of the Bible = King James Bible (1611)

9) Late Modern English = LateModE (ca. 1700 – ca. 1900): further standardization, but also spread of English as a world-language, especially British English vs. American English

10) Present-Day English = PDE (ca. 1900 – present)

11) Transmission of English: (a) until ca. 597: oral culture, oral transmission – what was not written down later, is lost; (b) ca. 597 to ca. 1476: written culture, manuscripts; literacy; (c) from ca. 1476: printing; introduced to England by William Caxton in 1476; (d) since ca. 1900: also recording of speech (record player, tape recorder (etc.) – pronunciation before ca. 1900 must be reconstructed from written documents; (e) since ca. 1990: computer, e-mail, www. etc.; new spellings (not yet standard): c you m8 ‘see you, mate’; 4 you;

2. Brief historical survey

- Earliest population (Stonehenge: ca. 1800 BC); language unknown

- Celts (Britons): ca. 600 BC – ca. 450 AD; Celtic language(s)

- Romans: Britain as a Roman province (e.g. York, Chester, Lincoln, St. Albans); Hadrian’s Wall: 43 AD – ca. 410; Latin as the dominant language

- Anglo-Saxons (ca. 450 (449) – 1066): conquest of Britain by Angles, Saxons, Jutes; first many small kingdoms; later: three major kingdoms, i.e. Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex; important: the Romans had left when the Anglo-Saxons came, i.e. no direct contact of Anglo-Saxons with Romans in England

- Christianization (from 597): Missionaries from Rome (St. Augustine); Canterbury as the seat of an archbishop since 597; also Irish missionaries from the North

- From 793: Viking invasions; 793 sack of Lindisfarne; 9th ct.: Danish army in England; King Alfred the Great (+ 899): saviour of England, educational programme, translations into English (e.g. Boethius); Danelaw;

- reconquest of England by Alfred’s successors

- Danish rulers over England, esp. Cnut (Canute) 1016-1035

- Edward the Confessor (1042-1066); Harold 1066

- 1066 Battle of Hastings (Harold – William); Norman Conquest, Norman Kings: William the Conqueror: Duke of Normandy and King of England; Feudalism; Norman Style; Castles (e.g. Tower of London: White Tower); Domesday Book; Bayeux Tapestry

- Henry II (1154-1189)

- John Lackland: 1204 Loss of Normandy; 1215: Magna Carta (basis of English liberty)

- Hundred Years War: from 1327 to 1453

- switch from French to English

- 2nd half of 14th ct.: culmination of ME literature: Chaucer, Gower, Gawain poet, Wycliffe Bible

- Wars of the Roses (civil war between the Houses of Lancaster: Red Rose, and of York: White Rose): 1455-1485; Richard III (1483-1485)

- End of the Middle Ages, beginning of the modern period: Humanism, Renaissance; printing; discovery of America; reformation

- House of Tudor: Henry VII; Henry VIII (1509-1547); Reformation from 1529; Dissolution of the Monasteries; Church of England; Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

- House of Stewart: James VI of Scotland > James I of England (1603-1625); Charles I; Puritans; Civil War 1640-1649; Oliver Cromwell; Restoration 1660 (-1685): Charles II, James II; Glorious Revolution 1689: William of Orange

- America: Discovery of America 1492; Virginia 1607; Pilgrim Fathers 1620; American Independence 1776 /1783 (Peace of Paris): United States of America

- House of Hanover: George I (1714-1727) – George IV; Industrial Revolution; Enlightenment and Rationalism (18th ct.);

- Victorian Age: Queen Victoria (1837-1901); House of Windsor; 1st World War, 2nd World War;

- Queen Elizabeth II (1952 – present): 2017: 65th jubilee; also linguistically interesting: recordings of her speeches since 1952.

3. Some general questions

(1) Why does langue change: vocabulary: new things etc.: new words; pronunciation? external reasons, e.g. language contact (loan-influence); social reasons (e.g. ME thou – you; ModE you); internal reasons, e.g. repair of the system (e.g. OE he, heo > Early ME he; new feminine: she); weakening of unstressed final syllables > loss of many inflectional endings

(2) Reconstruction, e.g. IE *ghostis

Latin hostis Gmc *gastiz

Old Norse gestr WGmc *gastiz

OE gest, giest German Gast

ModE guest /gest/ (from ON & OE)

Semantic relation must also be taken into account: *ghostis ‘stranger’

(3) Relation of words: (a) through common origin, e.g. Latin hostis – E guest

( b) through borrowing (loan-relation), e.g. E hostile < Latin; host

(4) Basic terminology: phone – phoneme – allophone; morph – morpheme – allomorph; graph- grapheme – allograph; sem – sememe; etc.

4. Vocabulary

(1) Native vocabulary going back to IE, e.g. names of family relationship (father, mother – Pol. matka), parts of the body (nose – Pol. nos, tooth), numerals (one, two – Pol. dwa), pronouns (I)

(2) Three ways of expanding the vocabulary: borrowing from other languages (loan-words); new words through word-formation; extension of meaning, addition of new meanings (polysemy, e.g. mouse, menu); enormous growth of the vocabulary: OE vocabulary ca. 30.000 words; ModE vocabulary: ca. 600.000 words – difficulty of counting: core vocabulary – specialized vocabulary; compounds or syntactic groups, etc.

(3) But also: loss of words (e.g. loss of some OE words due to French loan-words, e.g. dema replaced by judge; firen replaced by crime; leode (cf. Germ. Leute) replaced by people; fulwiht, fulluht replaced by baptism)

(4) Also: loan-formations, e.g. Latin omni-potens – E al-mighty; names for the days of the week (solis dies > Sunday; lunae dies > Monday, etc.); loan-meanings (God, hell, OE dryhten ‘lord’)

(5) Most important languages for borrowing: Latin, Scandinavian (Old Norse), French; furthermore, e.g.: Celtic, Italian

(6) Latin: from pre-OE to the present; many stages

(i) Latin influence on the continent, e.g. butter, camp, cheap, cheese, mint, pit, street, wall, wine

(ii) In England through Celtic transmission: OE ceaster, cf. ModE Chester, Manchester, Worcester

(iii) During Christianization, e.g.: alms, bishop, clerk, mass, martyr, noon, pope, offer, fennel, lily, plant, radish, rose

(iv) During ME: often indirect (most French words go back to Latin), but cf., e.g. kingly (native), royal (French), regal (Latin)

(v) Late ME and EarlyModE: e.g. add, create, direct, divide, expel

(vi) 16th & 17th ct: debate about inkhorn terms; malapropisms (confusion of Latin (Greek) loan-words, e.g. allegory instead of alligator)

(vii) ModE: neoclassical compounds (i.e. new compounds with Greek or Latin elements), e.g. astronaut, television, automobile, autograph, philately, pornography

(viii) Greek: in the OE & E period: mostly borrowed via Latin, i.e. Greek > Latin > English;

(7) Scandinavian: after 796; mostly everyday words (but also a few legal terms), most notably they, them. Also, e.g. husband, law, bank, birth, fellow, get, give, take, ill, odd, weak. Phonological criterion: /sk/, e.g. skill, skin, sky, skirt, bask. Differentiation of meaning, e.g. heaven –sky; hide – skin; shirt – skirt; modern loan-words: ski, ombudsman

(8) French

(i) influence after 1066; mainly influence on the vocabulary, but also on spelling and inflexion (e.g. of-genitive, comparison with more and most; you as the polite address)

(ii) huge influence on the vocabulary, e.g. state and administration: state, minister, city, country; nobility: prince, princess, duke, baron (but: king, queen: native); church: religion, sacrament, confession, baptism, penitence; law, crime and punishment: judge, justice, crime, accuse, condemn, pardon; war and military: army, navy, peace, war, enemy, battle; fashion: fashion, dress, gown, coat; eating and drinking: dinner, supper, roast, boil; colours: blue, brown, scarlet; precious stones: topaz, ruby, pearl, diamond; medicine: pain, malady, anatomy; other (including literature): painting, music, beauty, palace, mansion, chamber, tower, prose, romance, story, tragedy; personal names: Henry, Geoffrey, Richard, William

(iii) differentiation of meaning (native word for the living animal; French loan-word for the meat that is eaten): pig, swine – pork; cow, ox, bull – beef; calf – veal; lamb – mutton; deer – venison: no synonyms

(iv) wealth of synonyms, e.g. house – mansion; think – ponder, reflect, cogitate, meditate; a hearty welcome – a cordial reception; begin – commence; keep - retain

(v) English retains an older form, French changed late, e.g.: feast (fête), beast (bête), forest (forêt)

(vi) due to French influence: English has a mixed Germanic – Romance vocabulary

(9) Celtic: (a) continental, e.g. rich, iron, Wales, Welsh; OE ambiht (cf. Germ. Amt, Amtmann); (b) in England: ass, bin, OE dry (from drui with i-umlaut; later reborrowed as druid); place names & place name elements, e.g. London, York, Win-chester (1st element), Thames, Avon; (c) in ME via French: car, carpenter, mutton, vassal; (d) in the modern period: shamrock, clan, whisk(e)y, Tory, slogan

(10) Italian: much of musical terminology, e.g. presto, allegro, lento. opera, forte, piano, primadonna; but also banking: bank, bankrupt (< banca rotta).; food: pizza, spaghetti, risotto.

(11) Word-formation: compounds, prefix-formations, suffix-formations, conversion = zero-derivation, backformation = backderivation; sound-symbolic word-formation, reduplication, rhyme, ablaut; clipping; blending; acronyms

(12) Semantic change, change of meaning: ameloriation, pejoration, widening, narrowing

5. Spelling

(1) alphabetical spelling: attempt to render the pronunciation; English alphabet basically taken from Latin alphabet (with some exceptions); but in Modern English: many discrepancies between spelling and pronunciation; very roughly: present-day English spelling reflects the pronunciation around 1400, i.e. before the GVS, before the loss of <gh> /ç,χ/, before the loss of /r/ before consonants and at the end of words (RP: non-rhotic accent); but still: canonical spellings – rare spellings, cf. <ghoti> ~ <fish>, cf. laugh /f/, women /i/, nation.

(2) In OE & ME: no standard spelling (no orthography); each dialect spelled differently; spelling changed when pronunciation changed; this stopped in the course of the 15th ct.; GVS not reflected in spelling; term orthography borrowed in the late 15th ct. – Layers of spelling:

(3) OE: based on the Latin alphabet; special characters, e.g. þ = thorn (taken from the runic writing system); æ = ash (ligature: combination of ae)

(4) ME: (a) gradual loss of OE letters; þ replaced by th (last remnant: ye olde shoppe; really: þe old shop ‘the old shop’); (b) new combinations: <ch,gh,sh,th,wh>, e.g. OE sco, ModE shoe; also: <hw> > <wh>, e.g. OE <hwā> > ME, ModE <who>; (c) French influence: /u:/ spelled as <ou, ow>, e.g. OE hūs, tūn > ME, ModE house, town (in ME still /u:/; the modern pronunciation /au/ due to GVS); ē spelled as <ie>, e.g. chief; also applied to native words, e.g. OE þēof > ME thēf, thief (in ME still /e:/; ModE pronunciation due to GVS); /u/ spelled as <o> in many words, e.g. OE lufu, munuc ME, ModE love, monk; in ModE (and RP) pronounced with but-sound.

(5) ModE: (a) Discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation, e.g. GVS not reflected in the spelling; silent letters, e.g. <gh>: ME <gh> for /ç,χ/: was lost in most words, e.g. night, knight, light etc., but changed to /f/ in a few words, e.g. laugh, enough, rough etc.; phonotactics: /kn/ simplified to /n/, e.g. knight, knee, knot; (b) but also regularities, e.g. function of the silent word-final <-e>: (i) OE nama > ME nāme > ModE name /neim/; (ii) in EModE: <-e> functionalized, i.e. expresses length (or diphthongization) the preceding vowel; was also added to some words that never had a final <-e>, e.g. OE hūs, wīf (with long i), ModE house, wife; rule apparently still productive, cf. tonight, light > tonite, lite (but not yet a standard spelling); (c) relatinization in a few cases, e.g. (in spelling only) ME dette, ModE debt /det/ (< Latin debitum); ME dout(en), ModE doubt /daut/ (< Latin dubitare). (d) spelling reforms: none was accepted. (e) AmE spelling sometimes simpler than BrE spelling: thru – through; (f) experimental spellings, internet spellings: She’s 2 good 4 you; C you, m8.

6. Pronunciation and sound-systems

(1) Kinds of sound changes: (a) spontaneous (unconditioned), e.g. Grimm’s Law; GVS – combinatory (conditioned), e.g. Verner’s Law; i-umlaut; lengthening and shortening in Late OE and in ME. (b) quantitative: referring to length; qualitative: referring to articulation; (c) sporadic (just in single words, e.g. OE sprecan > ModE speak), OE twā > ModE two /tu:/(d) loss of phonemes, e. g. <gh> /ç χ/ mostly lost (in a few words change to /f/ enough); long ē due to GVS (changed to /i:/); rise of new phonemes (usually via allophones), e.g. OE /y, y:/ due to i-umlaut (u + i > y); ModE bird sound /ə:/; OE /f/ with allophones [f], [v]; ME, ModE: /f/, /v/ two different phonemes: feel - veal /fi:l/ - /vi:l/

(2) Grimm’s law and Verner’s law

(a) Grimm’s law (or First, Germanic sound shift): distinguishes the Gmc languages from the other IE languages; voiceless plosives (stops) became voiceless fricatives: p > f; t > th; k > χ; voiced plosives became voiceless plosives: b > p; d > t; g > k, e.g. IE pətér (cf. Latin pater) > OE fæder > ModE father (ModE fricative in father much later); cf. Lat. pes, pedis – E foot; L dens, dentis – E tooth; L captus – OE hæft (cf. G Haft, verhaften).

(b) Verner’s Law: Explains an exception to Grimm’s Law; roughly: If stress was shifted from the last syllable (in IE) to the first syllable (in Gmc), then the voiceless fricatives to be expected from Grimm’s Law changed further to voiced fricatives and then often to voiced plosives (affected consonants in the middle, but not at the beginning of words); cf. OE fæder; IE mātér > OE mōdor (ModE mother); this affected also /s/ > /z/.

(3) OE: i-mutation (i-umlaut): an i,j in the following syllable changed the preceding vowel, e.g. o + i > oe > e (short and long); u + i > y (short and long; new phoneme in OE); affected also inflexion: weak verbs class 1 usually show i-mutation, e.g. *dōm-jan > OE doeman > OE dēman > ModE deem (cf. doom – deem); OE *satt-jan > OE settan > ModE set (cf. sit – set); root-nouns (athematic nouns) show i-mutation in the plural: man – men, woman – women, foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose – geese, mouse – mice, louse – lice.

(4) Late OE and Early ME: lengthening and shortening processes; led to a change of syllable structure: as a tendency open syllables are long, and closed syllables are short (cf. the function of the <-e> explained in 5.(5b) above: <-e> creates, at least in the spelling, an open syllable (na-me, hou-se, wi-fe; cf. also hat vs. hate; cat vs. Kate; bit vs. bite; mat vs. mate); (a) in Late OE: lengthening of short vowels before nasal or liquid + homorganic voiced plosive; lengthening groups, e.g., mb, nd, ld; e.g. OE bindan > ME, ModE bind, ModE /baind/; OE feld > ME, ModE fēld, field (cf. 5(4c) above); cf. ModE child /ai/, but children /i/; (b) ME: MEOSL = Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening, e.g. OE nama > ME nāme > ModE name /neim/; OE talu > ME tāle > ModE tale /teil/; OE open > ME ōpen > ModE open /əupən/; (c) Late OE & ME: shortening before all other consonant groups (except lengthening groups, see (a) above), e.g. OE wēpan > ModE weep /i:/ (remains long), but OE past wēpte > wepte, ModE wept; i.e. weep – wept; cf. keep – kept; also in compounds, e.g. OE gōd > ModE good, but OE gōdspel ‘good news’ > Late OE godspel > ModE gospel (obscured compound);

(5) Other ME changes: (a) OE y:, y (long & short) > i:, i (North, East Midlands); > y:, y (West Midlands); > e: , e (South East = Kent); in ModE mostly i:, i, cf. OE pytt > ModE pit; OE synn > ModE sin; OE mӯs > ModE mice; but: OE myrig > ModE merry /meri/ (Kentish), OE bysig > ModE busy /bizi/ (spelling from WML, pronunciation from N, EML); OE byrgan > ModE bury /beri/ (spelling fromWML, pronunc. from Kentish); (b) OE /a:/ remains /a:/ north of the Humber, but is raised to ō (half-open o!) south of the Humber, e.g. OE bān > ModE bone; OE stān > ModE stone; OE þās > ModE those; (c) ME er (+ cons.) > LateME ar (+ cons.), e.g. OE feor > ME fer > ModE far; OE deorc > ME derk > ModE dark; ME werre (from Anglo-Norman, cf. French guerre) > ModE war; not reflected in the spelling in, e.g. Derby /da:bi/; cf. ME clerk > ModE clerk /kla:k/, but family name Clark; d) generally: weakening and loss of unstress final syllables.

(6) Integration of French loan-words: Stress: French: end-stress; English: initial stress; (a) monosyllables: stress remains, e.g. duc > duke; (b) words of two, three syllables: stress moved to the first syllable, e.g. cité > cíty; natúre > náture; (c) four & more syllables: stress moved forward, but not to the first syllable, e.g. temptatión > temptátion; (d) exception: prefixes remain unstressed: retain, reject, resist, consist, insist, refer, prefer etc. (e) No change in later loan-words, e.g. machíne, políce; Two possibilities: garage.

(7) Early Modern English: (a) Great Vowel Shift (GVS): all ME long vowels were raised or diphthongized, but the spelling did not change: ME /i:/ > ModE /ai/, time, die, night; /e:/ > /i:/, meet, thief; /ε:/ (half-open) > /i:/, meat, sea, clean; /a:/ > /ei/, gate, same, name; /u:/ > /au/, house, town; /o:/ > /u:/, moon, root, soon; /ɔ:/ (half-open) > /əu/, stone, bone, moan; causes?; results: loss of phonemes (loss of long e, and of long o); loss in some words, but re-emergence in other words, e.g. /i:/: time > /taim/, but see, sea > /si:/; exceptions: great, break, steak with /ei/ instead of /i:/; shortening after GVS, e.g. book, cook, look. (b) Lowering of /u/ to but-sound / ʌ/ in many words, e.g. bus, but, butter, cut, love, monk etc. (but with /u/ remaining: butcher, pull; in Northern England: /u/ remains generally, e.g. Northern love /luv/; (c) loss of /r/ before consonants and at the end of words in British English (including RP) > non-rhotic variety; Scots, American English: remain rhotic varieties (i.e. r pronounced everywhere). British English, e.g. /ar/ > /a:/ arm, car, star, large; new phoneme bird sound /ə:/ from ir, ur, er, e.g. bird, girl, burn, earth, herb; new phonemes also: centering diphthongs, e.g. : e:r > /iə/ beer, clear; o:r > /uə/ moor, poor. Characteristic of RP: linking r: far /fa:/, but far away /fa:rəwei/ intrusive r, e.g. India r and China; law r and order (same phonetic environment as for the linking r).

7. Word-classes (parts of speech) and inflexions (inflexional morphology)

(1) Nouns (substantives): number, case and gender; general development: (a) OE: ten declensions with different genitives and different plurals; ModE: one declension (in the singular: common case and genitive; in the plural: just common case): father – father’s – fathers – fathers’ (apostrophe only in spelling, not in pronunciation); plural-s comes from the masculines of the Gmc a-declension; genitive sing.-s comes also from the Gmc a-declension. Some remnants from lost declensions (see: plural); (b) OE: several endings for the genitive sing. (according to declension); ModE: only ‘s genitive as inflected genitive (my father’s car); but since ME: also: of-genitive (the door of the car): French influence; elliptical genitive: St Paul’s; at the butcher’s; (c) ModE: one regular plural: fathers, cars; remnants of older plurals as exceptions: children, oxen; for men, mice etc. see 6(3) above. Latin (& Greek) plurals in later loanwords: alumnus – alumni; fungus – fungi (but also funguses); data; (d) gender: masculine, feminine, neuter; but in OE: grammatical gender (tied to declensions); in ME and ModE replaced by so-called natural gender; OE, e.g. þæt wīf (as neuter; ModE wife); þæt mægden (also as neuter; ModE maiden); se wifman (masculine; ModE woman); in ModE: if recognisably male: masculine; if recognisably female: feminine; everything else: neuter; with certain exceptions (cars, ships, countries, rivers, etc.); but also new developments: doctor, teacher, professor, lawyer, nurse, flight attendant can be masculine or feminine: dual gender (?)

(2) Adjectives

(a) OE: strong adjectival declension: sing. gōd man – plur. gōde men; weak adjectival declension: se gōda man; þa gōdan men; most adjectives could be inflected either according to the strong declension (without article or demonstrative pronoun), or according to the weak declension (with article or demonstrative pronoun)

(b) ME, ModE: adjectival declension lost; adjs. have no inflectional endings; exception:

(c) gradation, i.e. comparative, superlative: (i) synthetic (since OE): long, longer, longest; fast – faster - fastest

(ii) analytic (since ME): beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful (French influence); (iii) suppletion (since OE): good – better – best; bad, evil – worse -worst

(3) Numerals: cardinal – ordinal; changes in ordinals: e.g. second as a loan-word

(4) Adverbs: primary and derived (primary, e.g., here, there, now, far, near); in OE several suffixes for the derivation of adverbs, e.g. –e: adj. yfel – adv. yfele; if adjs. had the suffix –lic, then re-interpretation took place and the two suffixes merged into one, i.e. –lice used as the adverbial suffixe even in OE: cwic - cwic-lic ‘living’ – cwic-lic+e > cwic-lice; ModE quick – quickly; -ly the most important adverbial suffix in ModE

(5) Pronouns and article

(a) personal pronouns: in OE fully inflected; in ModE mostly still a distinction between subject case and object case (I – me; we - us); genitive used as a possessive pronoun even in OE (see below). Three especially important developments: (i) second person: in ME still four forms, i.e. thou (sing. subject) – thee (sing. object) – ye (plur. subj.) – you (plur. obj.); but even in ME: use of the plural form as a polite address to one person (especially social superiors), due to French influence; gradual development: thou – thee regarded as less polite or impolite (Thou art a traitor): eventually you replaced all other forms in the standard language (exception: language of the Bible and of prayers): social reason for language change; disadvantage: no distinction between sing. and plur.; in some varieties of English: new plur. youse, you all etc. (but not in Standard English); (ii) third person sing.: OE masc. hē and fem. hēo fell together in Early ME under hē – no distinction between masc. and fem. possible; several new feminine forms in ME; eventually she as fem. in Standard English; collapse of the system and repair of the system as reason for language change; (iii) third pers. plur.: OE hī, him replaced by the Scandinavian loan-words they, them: language contact, borrowing as reason for language change. But a process that took centuries; Chaucer still has a mixed system, i.e. they (subject case), but hem (object case).

(b) possessive: originally the gen. of the personal pronouns: OE mīn, þīn, ūre etc.; development in ME: loss of –n before words beginning with a consonant, e.g. mī (mӯ) brother (but: min uncle), i.e. a phonological reason leading to phonologically conditioned allomorphs; but the difference was later functionalized, i.e. this is my book (attributive use), but this book is mine (predicative use); then the system was completed, i.e. our – ours, your – yours, their – theirs. I.e. one paradigm in OE, two paradigms in ModE (my – mine; our – ours).

(c) reflexive: No reflexive pronoun in OE; formation of reflexive pronouns in Late ME and EModE; two structures: myself, yourself (self as a kind of noun, premodified by the possessive pronoun); himself, themselves (him as head, postmodified by self).

(d) demonstrative and article: (i) in OE two paradigms of demonstrative pronouns, which were fully inflected: simple (se, sēo, þæt etc.) and complex (þes, þēos, þis etc.). Even in OE, se etc. also used as the definite article. (ii) In ME: just one form for the definite article: the; the rest developed two paradigms: this (with new plur. these) and that (with new plur. those), i.e. in ModE three paradigms, the – this / these – that /those. (iii) Indefinite article (a, an) arose as the weak form of the numeral one.

(e) interrogative (for questions): OE hwā, hwæt, hwylc: relative straightforward development to ModE who, what, which

(f) relative: (i) No separate rel.pron. in OE; three possibilites in OE: particle þe; simple dem.pron. = definite article se, sēo, þæt etc.; combination of both, i.e. se þe, seo þe etc. (ii) In Early ME, just that remains as rel.pron. (the was used as the definite article); then: gradually interrogative pronoun used as rel.pron, i.e. who, whose, which. (iii) zero relative pron.: if the rel. pron. is the object of the relative clause: “This is the man I know” < “This is the man whom I know”.

(g) definite article: the; indefinite article: a, an: from the numeral OE ān, ModE one /wʌn/,a, an; only

(6) Verbs

(a) Verb classes: historical and modern: (i) strong verbs (form their past with ablaut) > irregular verbs (sing – sang – sung; fight- fought – fought); (ii) weak verbs (form their past with dental suffix) > regular verbs (love – loved – loved; work- worked – worked); OE weak verbs class 1 show i-mutation, e.g. ModE doom, but to deem; tale but to tell; (iii) preterite-presents (past forms of strong, used as presents; new past form with a dental suffix) > modal auxiliaries (can-could, shall-should, will-would, may-might, must); in ModE: can only be used in connection with a full verb; (iv) mi-verbs, athematic verbs > primary auxiliaries: OE be, do, go, will: be: suppletive forms (I am, you are, he, she is, I was, we were etc.); (v) but exceptions in all directions, e.g. strong verbs > regular verbs (help – helped); weak verbs > irregular verbs (teach – taught; buy – bought; sell – sold; tell – told etc: have dental suffix); athematic verbs: go > full verb, but suppletive forms: go – went; will > modal auxiliaries

(b) strong verbs; in OE seven classes

(i) rīdan – rād – ridon –(ge)riden; ModE ride – rode – ridden

(ii) cēosan – cēas – curon – (ge)coren (grammatical change according to Verner’s Law); ModE choose – chose – chosen (i.e. elimination of grammatical change)

(iii) weorþan – wearþ – wurdon – (ge)worden ‘to become’; died out; but cf. German werden – wurde – geworden; replaced by become.

(iv) beran – bær – bǣron – (ge)boren; ModE bear – bore – born(e)

(v) sprecan – spræc – sprǣcon – sprecen; ModE speak – spoke – spoken (remodelled after class (iv): analogy

(vi) scacan – scōc – scōcon – scacen; ModE shake – shook – shaken

(vii) cnāwan –cnēow- cnēowon- cwāwen (originally reduplicating); ModE know – knew - known

(c) Inflexional endings: As with the history of English general: in OE many inflexional endings; in ME (and EModE) loss of many inflexional endings; (i) especially subjunctive largely lost (remnants: “God save the Queen”); (ii) but also present indicative, e.g. singular: OE ic helpe – þu hilpst – he, heo hilpþ; ModE: 2nd person sing. replaced by plural, you help (see: personal pronoun); 3rd person sing.: -s originally Northern dialect ending; entered the Standard Language in EModE and replaced the –eth ending (he helps); (iii) infinitive ending lost: OE helpan, to helpanne – ModE (to) help; OE leornian, to leornianne – ModE (to) learn; (iv) -ing form: In OE –ing (-ung) suffix for the deverbal noun (leornung ‘learning’); in OE -ende for the present participle: helpende. In ME: present participle took on the –ing ending, i.e. in LateME and ModE three functions of the –ing ending: deverbal noun, gerund (new in ME) and present participle, e.g. “The smoking of cigarettes is dangerous” (deverbal noun); “Smoking cigarettes is dangerous” (gerund); “He was smoking a cigarette” (present participle); or: “The paintings of Rembrandt are very expensive”; “I like painting pictures”; “She was painting a picture”.

(d) Verbal categories: tense, aspect, voice (strengthened categories); mood (weakened category).

(i) tense: in Gmc only present and past as inflected tenses (cf. the system of the strong & weak verbs, e.g. I help – I helped); in OE future could be expressed by the present tense, and past perfect by the past tense; but even in OE: gradual expansion of the tense system with the help of auxiliaries: perfect (present perfect: I have helped); past perfect (pluperfect: I had helped); future (I shall help, I will help, I’ll help, I’m going to help, The train arrives at 10.00, etc.); future in the past (future II: I shall have helped); questions: Is the present perfect a tense or a kind of aspect (connecting past with present)? Is there a future tense in English (because here mood and tense cannot always be separated, and because there are so many ways to express future); question of what is a grammatical category

(ii) aspect: in English distinction between simple form and expanded (progressive form) since OE; but the present distinction emerged only in EModE; in ModE progressive form in all tenses: I am helping you (now); I was helping you (yesterday); I have been helping you (since the early morning); I had been helping you, when a sudden rain stopped us; I shall be helping you (tomorrow); I’ll be seeing you (tomorrow).

(iii) voice: distinction between active and passive. In OE originally only active voice; but even in OE: development of passive voice with beon and weorðan. In ModeE: be passive (be + past part: The car was sold); and passive in the progressive (The car is being sold); esp. in EModE occasionally also: active with passive meaning: dinner is cooking; the book is printing; these clothes wash easily. Passive sentence as transformations of active sentences: Peter sold his car > The car was sold (agent does not have to be mentioned). In ModE also personal passive due to the loss of inflectional endings: They gave a book to the king > A book was given to the king; or personal passive: The king was given a book - re-interpretation of object as subject; OE: þæm cyninge wæs giefen an boc (cyninge as object) > ModE The king was given a book (king as subject).

(iv) mood: indicative - subjunctive – imperative: subjunctive frequent in OE, but practically extinct in ModE (apart from remnants such as “God save the Queen”; “If I were you ...”

(7) prepositions: function words, grammatical words; some go back to OE, e.g. at, by, from, before; others were developed later, e.g. according to; rection: due to loss of endings no longer with nouns, but still with pronouns: he, but: to him, with him, for him

(8) conjunctions: also grammatical words; closed word-classe: coordinating: and, or, but; subordinating: because, since, ...

(9) interjections: primary (ah, oh, psst, sh, shh, wow ...); secondary (damn, help): not integrated into the sentence; often integrated into the phonological system (sh, ah, oh); but exceptions, e.g. tut. Function: expressing emotions, but also: greetings (hello), farewell (goodbye), response formulae (yes, no), commands (psst, shh), curses (damn, hell) etc.; interesting: are affected by normal sound-changes; can be borrowed from one language into another (e.g. from French into ME)

(10) Strengthened and weakened grammatical categories: strengthened: tense, aspect; weakened: mood; case;

8. Syntax

E.g. questions, negation, word-order

(1) Questions: In OE with inversion, e.g. (here given in ModE form) You go – Go you? In ModE with to do (with main verbs): Do you go? Reason probably: Word-order SV(O) maintained for the main verb.

(2) Negation: four stages (with broad overlap; Jespersen cycle): ne + verb; ne + verb + not; verb + not; do not + verb (with main verbs); e.g. He ne hilpþ; He ne hilpþ not; He helps not; He does not help. In OE & ME also double negation: He never did nothing wrong; He never had no money; in ModE: double negation banned from the standard language (ModE: He never did anything wrong; He never had any money).

(3) Word-order: In ModE normally SVO (subject – verb – object), due to the loss of inflexional endings; in OE & ME: more flexible.

4) Other changes: For the rise of the personal passive, see above. In OE & ME: impersonal verbs; last remnant in EModE: methinks; replaced by personal constructions: I think.

9. Other concepts: grammaticalization: lexical words > grammatical words > suffixes;

Cf. I’m going to London soon; I’m going to read this book

9. Varieties and standard:

Usually: dialects first; standard language developed only later from the dialect of the capital. Written standard usually precedes spoken standard. Even today: Standard for spelling (largely), inflexion and syntax (largely); but no common standard for pronunciation (for British English: RP = Received Pronunciation; for American English: GA = General American).

(1) Old English dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian (both taken together as Anglian), West-Saxon, Kentish. Late West Saxon as a kind of standard in the late 10th & 11th centuries (capital: Winchester).; Winchester vocabulary

(2) Middle English dialects: After the Norman Conquest: Collapse of the Late West Saxon standard; marked dialectal differences in Early ME: Northern; West Midland; East Midland; Southern; South Eastern (Kentish).

(3) Gradual development of a standard language from the 2nd half of the 14th century onwards, based on the dialect of London (London as the capital); but: due to massive immigration to London especially from the East Midland, change of the London dialect: strongly influenced by East Midland dialect. Factors in favour of standardization (development of a standard language based on the dialect of London): Main poets worked in London (Chaucer, Gower); royal chancery (where all the royal documents were copied) was in London; printing was first introduced in London (Caxton 1476; see above); the universities (Oxford, Cambridge) were not far from London; 19th century: so-called public schools; the army

10. Other terms mentioned

Pidgin and creole languages: pidgin language: a mixed and simplified language (usually a mixture of a IE and a non-IE language), nobody’s mother tongue; creole language: if a pidgin language acquires native speakers; is also more expanded than a pidgin language.

11. Texts from OE, ME, EModE: Beowulf; Chaucer, Canterbury Tales; Shakespeare;

Literatura:

There is a large amount of literature on the history of English (and the titles are often similar);

a very small selection is:

Barber, Charles.2000. The English Language: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press

Baugh & Cable: Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 2013. A History of the English

Language. 6th ed.

CHEL: The Cambridge History of the English Language; 5 vols.

Crystal, David. 2004. The Stories of English. London: Allen Lane.

Fennel, Barbara. 2001. A History of English. Oxford: Blackwell.

van Gelderen, Elly. 2014. A History of the English Language. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Gramley, Stephan. 2012. The History of English. London: Routledge.

Jucker, Andreas. 2000. History of English and English Historical Linguistics. Stuttgart: Klett

Pyles & Algeo: Pyles, Thomas, and John Algeo. The Origins and Development of the English

Language. 3rd ed. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Efekty uczenia się:

• P_K6_W01 On the advanced level: methods of analysis and interpretation of the works of culture, traditions of the Anglophone area, theories and schools of thought in the field of cultural and literary studies / translation studies

• P_K6_W05 theories, methodology and general and specific terminology in the field of scientific disciplines of English philology

Skills

• P_K6_U05 formulate and analyze research problems, select methods and tools using the knowledge from the field of English philology / culture and literary studies / translation studies / basics of management for their solution

Social competences

• P_K6_K01 critically assess the level of personal knowledge, recognize the importance of knowledge in the process of solving educational and practical issues

Metody i kryteria oceniania:

attendance, final exam

Praktyki zawodowe:

not applicable

Zajęcia w cyklu "Semestr letni 2017/2018" (zakończony)

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